COURSE NAME: M21422 Economic History of Early India
M. A. SEMESTER 1
TUTORIAL 2
TUTORIAL TOPIC: Write a review of R. S. Sharma's Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalization.
SUBMITTED BY: Pranav Kushwaha
[DISCLAIMER: The following tutorial is being shared so students of CHS, JNU can get some idea regarding how a tutorial is to be written. This tutorial is by no means of high quality, and you might find some factual, spelling, and grammatical errors.
In the original file that I submitted, (i) the numbers in the square brackets were used to denote footnotes and were written in superscripts, and (ii) there was no dedicated section titled 'Endnotes', as each page contained footnotes. Endnotes are acceptable, but I'd advise you to use footnotes instead. Better yet, confirm from your professor what is required.]
Book Review:
R. S. Sharma, Early Medieval Indian Society: A
Study in Feudalisation, Kolkata: Orient Longman Limited, 2001.
R S Sharma’s Early Medieval Indian Society: A
Study in Feudalisation presents to its readers a comprehensive account of
the various social, political, economic, and religious aspects of the early
medieval Indian society. The book also goes to great length to describe how
these aspects both influenced and were influenced by the process of
feudalization that took place during this period. The book makes use of a
number of primary and secondary sources, as well as the experience and
expertise that the author brings to the table. The book is divided into nine
chapters, each dealing with a different issue to cover the whole discussion at
hand.
The first chapter, “Transition from Ancient to
Medieval”, begins with the question of how we should define historical periods.
If one follows the European model, one is left with the following results: Hinduism
is linked with the ancient period, the arrival of Islam marks the beginning of
the medieval period, and the establishment of colonial rule and the coming of
Christianity starts the so-called modern period. As the author shows, linking
historical periods with religion is highly problematic; for example, countries
that always maintained one state religion would perpetually be stuck in one
time period. The author argues that it was land grants that “ultimately
transformed ancient Indian society into medieval society” [1]. He also states that the decline
of trade with the western world by the sixth century and the Arab middlemen
reaping most of the benefits of Indo-Southeast Asian and Indo-Chinese trade
resulted in the decay of towns, especially in the post-Gupta period.[2] The proliferation of castes,
development of local languages and scripts, the rise of tantrism, and the early
concept of bhakti marked the transition from the ancient to the medieval.
The beginning of the second chapter, “The Kali Age:
A Period of Social Crisis”, explains the Kali Age as a period of time when dharma
has lost three of its four legs, a period when rituals are neglected and
the duties associated with the Varṇa System are not performed by the people. After
focusing on the descriptions of social disorder during the Kali Yuga – as
predicted by texts such as the Harivaṃśa – the chapter then focuses on a historical understanding
of the Kali Yuga. In this regard, it can be argued that the beginning of the Kali
Age was marked by the desertion of settlements from the 3rd century
CE, coinciding with the decline of the Kuśāṇa and the Sātvāhanas empires.[3] A lot of focus has been placed upon the rulers imposing
unnecessary taxes and using forced labour to meet their luxurious demands.
People resorted to migration as socio-economic conditions worsened, and this
resulted in rural expansion. Moreover, land grants in tribal areas brought
previously alienated people into the Varṇa System, making farmers out of the people belonging to the native
tribes.[4] People with financial means
also fought for superior social status in a bid to be recognised for their
contributions towards the functioning of society. Lastly, the forced employment
of the Śudras in agricultural fields also declined during the Gupta
age. Therefore, the author concludes that the “Kali Crisis of the late third
and fourth centuries” provided the necessary elements which would react and
result in the feudalisation of Indian society.[5]
The third chapter, “The Nature of Indian Feudalism”,
begins with the argument that although feudalism varies across socio-political
and historical contexts, there exist some basic and universal fundamental
aspects that cannot be ignored. One of these fundamental aspects is the
relationship between the landlord and the peasant, and the exploitation of the
latter by the former.[6] The texts written by Yājñavalkya,
Bṛhaspati, and Vyāsa, as well as the Gupta inscriptions,
talk about the hierarchy established within the environment of cultivable land.[7] Land grants ultimately
established the “superior rights of the landlord at the cost of both the king
and the peasantry”[8]
which allowed the grant beneficiary to exploit the peasants even more; these
peasants were liable to be evicted at the whim of the landlord. On the other
hand, the state was able to collect its taxes via these landowners, as a result
of which the rulers were able to gain legitimacy and secure their right to
rule. Irrigation infrastructure – like wells, embankments, ponds, etc. – was
also established to support agriculture and laws were made to punish those who
would damage these constructions. The Indian system of feudalism, the author
argues, differed from the European model of feudalism where the feudal lords
depended on serfs to cultivate their land. Here, the ruling class created an
intermediary landed class – the latter collected taxes for the former while
exploiting the peasants.
The fourth chapter, “Paucity of Metallic Coinage”,
begins with the argument that the study of coins is valued far more for
understanding political history, and that not enough importance is given to the
study of coins for understanding economic history. The author argues that the
introduction of coins transformed the economy from taxation mechanism to trade methods
to establishing relationships between people at different levels of
socio-political hierarchy. Punch-marked coins were the norm during the Mauryan
period, and by the Gupta period, coins of gold, copper, and a number of other
metals were in use. Although coins continued to be in use by local dynasties, the
post Gupta period saw an overall scarcity in coinage.[9] This scarcity seems to have
come to an end circa 1000 CE, when coins of gold and other metals were reissued
by Indian dynasties and trade flourished yet again. In the subsequent centuries, agricultural
expansion, technological breakthroughs, rise of new, powerful dynasties – such
as the Coḷas, Cāḷukyas, Kalacuris, Candellas, Cāhmanas, Paramāras, etc. – contributed
towards the development of trade and communication with the rest of the world.[10]
The fifth chapter, “Aspects of Royal Land Charter (Rājaśāsana) and Property Inheritance”, is divided into two parts. The first
part, titled “Rājaśāsana and its Legal Aspects”, introduces to the reader the
“four feet of a lawsuit” as given in Kauṭilya’s Arthśāstra. These are –
in increasing order of importance such that each successive category supersedes
the previous category – dharma (law), vyavhāra (transactions of
property, wage, debts, etc.), carita, and rājaśāsana (royal
orders).[11]
The rājaśāsana was invoked in several situations, especially in the case of a
land dispute (kṣetraja or kṣetrajavāda).[12] Due to its utmost importance, forging of rājaśāsanas
also took place. To counter this, several rules were laid down which provided
for the verification and interpretation of these rājaśāsanas. Since the
interpretation was to be carried out in a sabhā that barred the entry of the śudras, they were unable to get
justice in land dispute matters.[13]
The second part, titled “Property and Inheritance Laws: Social and Economic
Implications”, explains that according to the Dharmasūtras, there existed different means of acquiring property for
members of each Varṇa in the Varṇa system. Gupta law provided that mere
possession (bhukti) of property did not prove ownership, and that proper
documentation (āgama) was required as proof.[14]
Vidyādhana – property acquired due to teaching or sacrificial fee – could not
be shared.[15]
Thus, we see that a number of provisions had been made for the protection as
well as the inheritance of property, and the state played an important role in
regulating both the practices.
In the sixth chapter, “Changes in Social Structure”,
we see that the frequent land grants led to the creation of new socio-economic
classes that did not exist in the Varṇa system. For
example, we see the rise of the Kāyastha community. Distributed
into a number of sub-groups, the social class of writers eventually came to be
recognized as one single group. The Kāyasthas acted as scribes,
maintaining records of land grants, which could then be used for settling any
future land disputes. These Kāyasthas were also known as
karaṇa, lekhaka, adhikṛta, etc.[16]
Similarly, different classes of people came into existence who would keep track
of land grants and property divisions. The author argues that the medieval
period also saw a rise in the status of the śudras and a decline in that of the
vaiśyas, as the former were employed in agriculture while the decline of trade
negatively affected the latter.[17] There also occurred a differentiation within the Śudra community, as they were
divided into two categories: sat (pure) and asat (impure).
Moreover, a number of mixed castes also came up during this period.[18]
This proliferation of castes was not limited to the lower sections of the Varṇa system. For example, the author mentions that
although many Rajputs had originated from the Kśatriya class, several tribes –
like the Cāḷukyas, Candelas, and Pālas – were recognized as Kśatriyas by the
brahmins after performing certain rituals. Several central Asian peoples were
inducted into the Kśatriya warrior class as well.[19]
The seventh chapter, “Dimensions of Peasant
Protest”, explains that peasant protests could take many forms. One of the
easiest ways of doing that was to personally complain to the king during royal
visits. Even brahmins would lead several protests, with their own agenda of
outthrowing those brahmins who enjoyed a better economic position due to the
land grants. Yet another method was to desert the village en masse, and
although necessary, it must not have been easy. One of the harder and bloodier
ways of protests has been observed in the case of 11-13th century
Andhra and Karnataka, where peasants would have to resort to launching attacks
against the landlords – when the landlord didn’t listen to the peasant complaints
– and the landlords could then burn the standing crop to punish the peasants.[20] Measures were also taken to
prevent the peasants from mobilising in the first place. Since they were part
of the same community (defined by caste or kin), the landholders would often
impose this sense of “belonging” to deter the peasant from causing any upheaval.
Religion also played a part in keeping social uproar in check, as both
landlords and peasants were required to give gifts to temples and participate
in community feasts.[21] The author also describes
several examples of revolts that took place during the early medieval period
across India in great detail.
The eighth chapter, “Economic and Social Basis of
Tantrism”, begins with a historical understanding and description of Tantrism.
Since Tantrism did not discriminate between the people on the basis of their
Varṇa or gender, women and men (especially those
belonging to the śudra category)
flocked to Tantrism in large numbers. Tāntrika functioned as astrologers and
physicians and were thus an important part of the social order. Shrines of the
mother goddess, who defines Tantrism, were first recognized by the Brahmanical
order in the sixth century.[22]
Tantrism spread to tribal societies and was even influenced by Buddhism and
Jainism, and we even find Tantric texts with Shaivite and Vaishnavite influence.[23]
The chapter goes into great detail in discussing the plethora of Tantric texts
written throughout the medieval period, how land grants were made in the name
of Tantrism, and how it influenced the larger Brahmanical order as well as
specific sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism. The chapter concludes with the
fact that attempts at integrating aspects of Tantrism with Brahminism worked as
many Brahmins took to Tantrism.
The ninth chapter, “The Feudal Mind”, argues that
owing to the socio-economic basis of feudalism, there was little to no mobility
possible in the feudal system. But this system of hierarchy – king at the top,
followed by the land grant beneficiaries, and then the peasants – did not limit
itself to agriculture or economy. Aspects of this hierarchy were also reflected
in the construction of temples, the adoption of epithets by rulers, and
medieval mythologies. The author argues that due to the propagation of the belief
that destiny was everything, that even karma was pre-determined by destiny,
peasants developed a sense of apathy and helplessness.[24] The language used in
inscriptions and land charters establishes the subservient nature of grant
receivers in relation to the grant donors. During this period, the concept of
bhakti came to be associated with service and liberation. A bhakta would make
offerings to God, and He would give the bhakta His blessings in the form of prasāda. These
ideals of bhakti were followed by peasants as well. The author argues that due
to the close relationships between the peasant and the overlord, between the
various feudal lords, and between the feudal lords and the king, the bhakti
cult gained a wide base of support.[25]
The given book traces the social, political,
economic, and religious aspects of India across the early medieval period and aptly
explains the relationship between these factors and the rise of feudalism that
took place within the given period. The decline in agriculture and trade that
marked the post-Gupta period came to an end by the tenth-eleventh century; new
land was brought under cultivation due to which agricultural expansion took
place and trade flourished. This was accompanied by the rise of new kingdoms
and dynasties. The practice of land grants created several new socio-economic
classes while several other classes saw their importance reduced. A peasant’s
rights over the cultivated land were also negatively affected. As a result,
several peasant uprisings also took place. In the religious sphere, Tantrism
rose into existence, accepting people from all walks of life into its fold. Overall,
the early medieval period was a period of major transformations, and the book
perfectly captures this fact.
Pranav Kushwaha
Enrolment Number: 21/61/HH/063
Semester 1
M. A. Ancient History (ANCM), CHS, JNU
ENDNOTES
[1] p. 18.
[2] pp. 27-28.
[3] pp. 48-49.
[4] p. 75
[5] p. 76.
[6] p. 80.
[7] Ibid.
[8] p. 92.
[9] P. 126.
[10] pp. 151-153.
[11] p. 163.
[12] p. 174-175.
[13] pp. 175-177.
[14] p. 179.
[15] p. 184.
[16] p. 194-195.
[17] p. 197-198.
[18] p. 200-202.
[19] pp. 206-207.
[20] p. 216.
[21] p. 233.
[22] p. 247.
[23] p. 255.
[24] p. 277.
[25] p. 280.
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